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СодержаниеIntroduction 3\r\n1. The concept of “stress” 6\r\n2. Big-city stress (on example of New York) 10\r\n3. The nature of rural stress 15\r\n4. The comparative characteristic of the reasons of rural and big city stress 19\r\nConclusion 22\r\nBibliography 24ВведениеToo often when we think of places where quality of life is threatened by the spiral of rising taxes and declining services, cities come to mind - aging, rundown, unappealing cities.\r\nStress is an omnipresent fact of life in big city - and it’s getting worse. We work harder - an increase of almost four hours per week between the late eighties and the turn of the century. We need more money to pay for rising taxes and inflation. We worry about another terrorist attack. And, to top it all off, stress might even age us more quickly at the cellular level. Researchers in San Francisco just completed a study that found that chronic emotional stress erodes telomerase, an enzyme in our cells that helps extend our life span, keeping us young and healthy. The cells of the most stressed-out women in the studies were effectively aged ten years more than normal.\r\nIn 1999, Nicholas Christenfeld, a psychology professor at the University of California, examined the national rates at which people die of heart attacks. In New York, he noticed, the rates are 55 percent higher than the national average. “It stands out like a red light on the map,” he says. Then Christenfeld examined the rates of heart attacks among visitors to New York. Amazingly, those numbers were also elevated - 34 percent higher than normal. The reverse was also true - when New Yorkers travel to other parts of the country, their rates drop below the city’s norm by 20 percent.\r\nA new survey of rural health workers and volunteers has identified an increase in rural stress, especially amongst land managers and country sports workers. \r\nThe research was carried out by the Countryside Alliance. A questionnaire was distributed to an estimated survey sample of 500 rural health workers and volunteers and received a 30% response rate. \r\nRespondents indicated that groups most susceptible to stress are those directly involved with land and countryside management and primary food production i.e. farmers, farm workers, estate workers and country sports workers. The study in particular identifies the heavy burden of legislation and regulation on susceptible sectors of the rural community. \r\nAsked about the levels of stress they had to deal with, there was an 86% response rate. Most (67%) reported that they were having to deal with increasing levels of stress. While 19% reported \\\'no change\\\', no one reported declining levels of stress. \r\nWhen asked if it was possible to identify the root causes of stress (to which there was an 89% response rate), the majority (83%) said \\\'yes\\\'. These respondents then identified that income decline and loss of livelihood was the major (82%) root cause of stress, with significant responses on isolation (68%) and the loss of a way of life (68%). \r\nOf particular note was that a loss of a \\\'sense of belonging\\\' (47%) is placed as a more significant cause of stress than \\\'loss of home\\\' (30%), though this may also reflect that loss of home does not always actually figure as an issue of change. This is no way of disaggregating this issue within this survey. Other issues identified as causes of stress, all of which are linked to a sense of belonging are \\\'worthlessness\\\', \\\'loss of culture\\\', \\\'loss of self-worth\\\' and \\\'uncertainty\\\'. \r\nConcluding the survey, respondents were asked for general comments, some of which included: \\\"Depression is made worse by isolation and sense of worthlessness in the national community.\\\"\r\n\\\"There is a very low morale across the rural scene - and its getting worse - visibly worse.\\\"\r\nThe results reflect the opinions of a wide selection of volunteers and health care professionals dealing with stress in rural communities. In their experience, rural stress is on the increase, says the report.\r\nCountryside Alliance Chief Executive Simon Hart commented: \\\"This survey provides a snapshot of the health of rural Britain and the results are cause for huge concern. We have found that the principal root causes of stress are income decline and loss of livelihood, isolation and the loss of a way of life. \r\nThe aim of the work is to consider differences in stress level between people living in the cities and those who live in the countryside.Заключение1. ACRE/Rural Minds, 1999. Rural poverty initiative You can’t eat the scenery (www.acre.org.uk)\r\n2. Appleby, L., 2003. Mental health priorities for the coming period. Presentation at the launch of the SE Development Centre of NIMH(E), 29 April 2003.\r\n3. Bosma, H., Marmot, M.G. & Hemmingway, H., 1997. Low job control and risk of coronary heart disease in Whitehall II (prospective cohort) study. British Medical Journal, 314: 558.\r\n4. Barnett PA, Spence JD, Manuck SB, Jennings JR. Psychological stress and the progression of carotid artery disease. J Hypertens. 1997; 15: 49–55\r\n5. Brunner, E. & Marmot, M., 1999. Social organisation, stress and health. In: Marmot, M. and Wilkinson, R.G. (eds) The social determinants of health. Oxford: Oxford University Press.\r\n6. Carroll D, Smith GD, Sheffield D, Shipley MJ, Marmot MG. Pressor reactions to psychological stress and prediction of future blood pressure: data from the Whitehall II Study. BMJ. 1995; 310: 771–776\r\n7. Countryside Agency, 2003. The state of the countryside 2020. Wetherby, W.Yorks: Countryside Agency Publications (www.countryside.gov.uk).\r\n8. Dalgard, O.S. & Tambs, K., 1997. Urban environment and mental health: a longitudinal study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 171: 530-6\r\n9. Department of health, 2002. National Suicide Prevention Strategy. London: Department of Health.\r\n10. Freeman, H., editor, 1984. Mental Health and the Environment London: Churchill Livingstone.\r\n11. Goodwin, J.S., 2000. Glass half full attitude promotes health in old age. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 48: 473-478.\r\n12. Hanna, J. 2003. Social policy goals: links to nature conservation.\r\n13. Health Education Authority, 1998. Community Action for Mental Health. London.\r\n14. Henwood, K. 2002. Issues in health development: Environment and health: Is there a role for environmental and countryside agencies in promoting benefits to health? London: Health Development Agency (www.hda-online.org.uk).\r\n15. Hippisley-Cox, J., Fielding, K. & Pringle, M., 1998. Depression as a risk factor for ischaemic heart disease in men: population based case control study. British Medical Journal, 316: 1714-1719.\r\n16. Kaplan, R. & Kaplan, S., 1989. The Experience of Nature: a psychological perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\r\n17. Lewis, G. & Booth, M., 1994. Are cities bad for your mental health? Psychological Medicine, 24: 913-915.\r\n18. Light KC, Cardiovascular responses to effortful active coping: implications for the roles of stress in hypertension development. Psychophysiology. 1981; 18: 216–225\r\n19. Marmot, M. & Wilkinson, R., 1999. Social determinants of health. Oxford: Oxford University Press.\r\n20. Marucha, P.T., Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K. & Favagehi, M., 1998. Mucosal wound healing is impaired by examination stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 60: 362-365.\r\n21. Matarasso, F. 1997. Use or Ornament: the social impact of participation in the arts Comedia. London.\r\n22. Meltzer, H., Gill, B., Pettigrew, M. & Hinds, K., 1996. The prevalence of psychiatric morbidity among adults living in private households OPCS surveys of psychiatric morbidity in Great Britain. Report 1. London: HMSO.\r\n23. Mental Health Foundation, 2000. Strategies for living: report of user led research into people’s strategies for living with mental distress. London: Mental Health Foundation.\r\n24. Mutrie, N., 2000. The relationship between physical activity and clinically defined depression, In: S.J.H. Biddle, K.R. Fox & S.H. Boutcher, eds. Physical activity and psychological well-being London: Routledge.\r\n25. Paykel, E.S., Abbott, R., Jenkins, R., Brugha, T.S. & Meltzer, H., 2000.\r\n26. Urban-rural mental health differences in Great Britian: findings from the National Morbidity Survey. Psychological Medicine, 30:269-280\r\n27. Stewart-Brown, S., 1998. Emotional well-being and its relation to health. British Medical Journal, 317: 1608-1609.\r\n28. Schneck MJ. Is psychological stress a risk factor for cerebrovascular disease? Neuroepidemiology. 1997; 16: 174–179\r\n29. Tarnopolsky, A. Clark, C., 1984. Environmental noise and mental health. In: Freeman, H. (ed), Mental Health and the Environment, 250-270.\r\n30. Taylor, A., 2000. Physical activity, anxiety and stress. In: Biddle, S.J.H., Fox, K.R. & Boutcher, S.H. (eds) Physical Activity and Psychological Well-Being. London: Routledge.\r\n31. Ulrich, R.S., 1979. Visual landscapes and psychological well being. Landscape Research, 4: 17-23.\r\n32. Ulrich, R.S., 1983. Aesthetic and affective response to natural environment. In: Altman I & Wohlwill, J.F. (eds) Human Behaviour and Environment: advances in theory and research. Vol 6 Behaviour and the Natural Environment. New York: Plenum Press.\r\n33. Ulrich, R.S., Simons, R.F., Losito, B.D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M.A. & Zelson, M., 1991. Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11: 201-30.\r\n34. Vedhara, K., Cox, N.K. & Wilcock, 1999. Chronic stress in elderly carers of dementia patients and antibody response to influenza vaccination. Lancet, 353 (9153): 627-631.\r\n35. Walter, J.A., 1982. The Human Home: The myth of the sacred environment. Tring: Lion.\r\n36. Wells, J., Barlow, J. & Stewart-Brown, S., 2001. A systematic review of universal approaches to mental health promotion in schools. Oxford: Health Service Research Unit, University of Oxford, Institute of Health Sciences.\r\n37. Widgren BR, Wikstrand J, Berglund G, Andersson OK. Increased response to physical and mental stress in men with hypertensive parents. Hypertension. 1992; 20: 606–611Литература"
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