СодержаниеContents 1
Introduction 2
1. Concept of economy in spoken language 5
1.1. The economy principle in linguistics: stages of research 5
1.2. Spoken language: general linguistic characteristics 10
1.3. Core grammatical features of spoken English as a result of the principle of economy 13
2. Forms of word economy in spoken English 19
2.1. Definition of the Talk Show as an Informal Conversation 19
2.2. Elliptical and non-sentential constructions 22
2.2.1. Complete and incomplete sentences 22
2.2.2. Elliptical constructions 23
2.2.3. Substitutions 30
2.3. One-member sentences 31
2.4 Clause combining under word economy 32
Conclusion 36
References 38
The transcripts of talk-shows 41ВведениеThe concept of economy in linguistics has a lot of different values and meanings and can be considered and studied from many and diverse viewpoints. The concept of economy may be referred to as "the principle of least effort" (term of A. Martinet), which consists in tending towards the minimum amount of effort that is necessary to achieve the maximum result. This principle is at the very core of linguistic evolution. The concept of economy can be interpreted at all the linguistic levels, including phonetics/phonology, morphology, syntax, lexis, discourse.
The concept of economy has played an important role in several theoretical frameworks. The most famous of those are Chomskian Minimalist Program (Chomsky 1993), Optimality Theory (Prince, Smolensky, 1993) and Relevance theory (Sperber & Wilson 1986). The forerunners to these theories are the American linguist and philologist George Kingsley Zipf (1949) and the French linguist Andr? Martinet (1962). Martinet described a primary mechanism of language change as coming from the interaction of two factors: "first, the requirements of communication, the need for the speaker to convey his message, and second, the principle of least effort, which makes him restrict his output of energy, both mental and physical, to the minimum compatible with achieving his ends." (Martinet 79).Литература1. Akmajian, A., Demers, R.D., Farmer, A.K., Harnish, R. M. Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication 5nd ed. The MIT Press Cambridge Massachusetts London England , 2001
2. Carston R. A Note on Pragmatic Principles of Least Efforts, in Intercultural Pragmatics, 2005
3. Carter, R. and McCarthy, M. Cambridge Grammar of English, Cambridge University Press, 2006
4. Carter, R. and M. McCarthy. Grammar and the spoken language, in Applied Linguistics 16(2) (1995): 141-158.
5. Chomsky, N. The Minimalist Program. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995
6. Christian, M. and Leech, G. Current Changes in English Syntax, in The Handbook of English Linguistics. Arts, Bas and April, McMahon (eds). Blackwell Publishing, 2006.
7. Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language Cambridge University Press, 2nd Edition, 2003
8. Downing A. and Locke Ph. English Grammar: A University Course, Second Edition Routledge, 2006
9. Ellipsis and Nonsentential Speech, ed. Reinaldo Elugardo and Robert J. Stainton, Springer, 2005
10. Introduction to the Grammar of Talk, in Qualification and Curriculum Authority, London (2004): 64-86
11. Greenbaum, S. English Grammar, Oxford University Press, 1996
12. Hockett, C. Grammar for the hearer, in Language for Hearers ed. McGregor G. Oxford: Pergamon Press (1986): 49-68
13. Leech, G. A Communicative grammar of English London: Longman, 1994
14. Leech, G. English Grammar in Convesration, in Conference Proceedings "Language Learning and Computers", 1998
15. Leech, G., Deuchar, M. and Hoogenraad, R. English Grammar for Today London: Longman, 1982
16. Lerner, G. On the syntax of sentences in progress, in Language in Society 20, 1991 pp. 441-458
17. Martinet A. Economie des changements phonetiques. Traite de phonologie diachronique, Bern, Francke, 1955
18. McCarthy, M. and Carter, R. Ten criteria for a spoken grammar, in E Hinkel and S Fotos (eds) New Perspectives on Grammar Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001, 51-75
19. Mart?nez, M.R. Political interviews, talk show interviews, and debates on british TV: a contrastive study of the interactional organisation of three broadcast genres, 2000
20. Merchant, J. The Syntax of Silence: Sluicing, Islands and the Theory of Ellipsis (Oxford Studies in Theoretical Linguistics 1). Oxford University Press, 2001.
21. Miller, J. An Introduction to English Syntax Edinburgh University Press 2002
22. Rayevska N.M. Modern English Grammar, Kiev, 1976, 2004
23. Wekker, H. and Haegeman, L. A Modern Course in English Syntax Routledge London - New-York 1996
24. Winkler, S. Ellipsis, in The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd edition. Edited by Keith Brown Oxford: Elsevier, 2006
25. Zipf G. K. Human Behavior and the Principle ofljeast Effort, Cambridge (Mass.), Addison-Wesley Press, 1949
26. Кобрина Н. А., Корнеева Е. А., Оссовская М. И., Гузеева К. А. Грамматика английского языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности № 2103 "Иностранные языки". - СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999
The references to transcripts of talk-shows
1. The Richard & Judy Show, March 9, 2006 (with Anthony Head) http://www.headsupguide.com/Interviews/InterviewsMain.htm
2. The Richard & Judy Show, June 26, 2006 (with J.K. Rowling) http://www.the-leaky-cauldron.org/2006/6/27/transcript-of-jkr-interview-on-richard-judy
3. The Richard & Judy Show, (with Martin Pashly) http://www.healthvibes.co.uk/html/healthvibes_media_coverage_-_r.html
4. The Richard & Judy Show, (with Olympic rower James Cracknell) http://www.twrc.rowing.org.uk/slug/oldslime53.htm
5. The Richard & Judy Show, July 25, 2006 (with George Michael) http://remarkable.wordpress.com/2006/07/25/george-michael-on-richard-judy-the-transcript/
6. Wogan: Now & Then, UKTV Gold, February 23, 2006 (with Anthony Head) http://www.headsupguide.com/Interviews/InterviewsMain.htm
7. http://www.headsupguide.com/Interviews/InterviewsMain.htm
8. The Johnny Vaughn Show, January 17, 2002 (with Orlando Bloom) http://www.theorlandobloomfiles.com/multimedia.html
9. The Johnny Vaughan Show, 27 September 2002 (with Nick Carter)
10. The Sharon Osbourne Show, ITV, August 31, 2006 (with Anthony Head) http://www.headsupguide.com/Interviews/InterviewsMain.htm
11. The Graham Norton Show, March 1, 2002 (with Orlando Bloom) http://www.theorlandobloomfiles.com/multimedia.html
12. GMTV ITV, Interviewers: Jenni Falconer and Michael Underwood. April 28, 2006 (with Anthony Head) http://www.headsupguide.com/Interviews/InterviewsMain.htm
13. BBC Somerset Radio, April 14, 2006, interviewer: Helen Otter (with Anthony Head) http://www.headsupguide.com/Interviews/InterviewsMain.htm
14. The John Uphoff Show, BBC Radio Jersey, June 17, 2005 (with Anthony Head) http://www.headsupguide.com/Interviews/InterviewsMain.htm
15. The Jo Whiley Show, Radio One (UK), July 11, 2003 (with Orlando Bloom) http://www.theorlandobloomfiles.com/multimedia.html
16. Somerset Sound Morning Jo, Somerset Sound Radio, interviewer: Jo Phillips August 17, 2006 (with Anthony Head and Sara Fisher) http://www.headsupguide.com/Interviews/InterviewsMain.htm
17. Steve Wright in the Afternoon, BBC Radio 2, June 6, 2007 (with Anthony Head) http://www.headsupguide.com/Interviews/InterviewsMain.htm
18. The Danny Baker Breakfast Show, BBC London Radio. November 28, 2003 (with Anthony Head) http://www.headsupguide.com/Interviews/InterviewsMain.htm
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